Editor’s Be aware: This article was initially printed in 2023.
It’s a story so well-known it has develop into a meme. “People: Keen to cross a frozen river to kill you in your sleep on Christmas.” George Washington’s Continental Military, having suffered a sequence of main setbacks within the combating round New York Metropolis in the summertime and fall of 1776, launched a shocking counterattack on Dec. 26, 1776. Crossing the icy Delaware River on Christmas night time, Washington’s military stunned and captured nearly 1,000 brutal Hessian mercenaries, drunk from Christmas celebrations. These troops have been combating on the British aspect, despatched to America by their grasping monarchs. The victory over these drunken mercenaries raised the morale of the Continental Military, convincing lots of the patriots to remain on and reenlist for an extra six weeks. Because of this, future battles hinged on the success of Trenton, making this a turning level within the struggle. On this telling, a free military of American citizen-soldiers triumphed over the hireling corruption of European despotism. Ergo, a form of American Christmas miracle.
The difficulty is, many parts of this acquainted story aren’t fairly proper. They depend on an overly simplistic understanding of the Revolutionary Warfare. The story above is a part of America’s heritage, however not fairly a part of American historical past. Within the Christmas season, it may be straightforward to succeed in for the comforting. Tales that transcend truth into fable can inform us essential truths about who we’re, however they’ll additionally distract us and result in false or hazy understandings of army historical past and army affairs. This Christmas, let’s minimize by a little bit of fable with the intention to achieve a greater understanding of the fact of America’s founding. By making an attempt to maneuver previous the heritage to the historical past, we are able to discover out extra about our enemies and ourselves. Solely by giving the Hessians their due can we recognize the true nature of Washington’s knowledge.
Who Had been the Hessians?
Rigorously understanding our enemies is a vital first step. Who have been the Hessians? George Washington’s German opponents have lengthy been obscure, however the analysis of students like Friederike Baer and Daniel Krebs is making them tangible.
Of the various myths concerning the Revolutionary Warfare, none appear as widespread as the concept that the “Hessians” have been “mercenaries.” First off, they weren’t all Hessian. Though most got here from the mid-sized state of Hessen-Kassel, there have been additionally troops from the principalities of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel, Hessen-Hanau, Ansbach-Bayreuth, Waldeck, and Anhalt-Zerbst. And if you happen to take a look at the bigger world struggle, of which the revolution was a component, troops from the state of Hanover (Braunschweig-Lüneburg) additionally fought for the British in such far-flung locales as Gibraltar and India. So, whereas over 60 % of the “Hessians” got here from Hessen, the opposite 40 % hailed from all around the western and central Holy Roman Empire — roughly the place Germany is right now.
Additionally, these troops, Hessians and others, weren’t fairly mercenaries. This can be a powerful one to swallow, and this false impression is even included in the Declaration of Independence. Don’t imagine me? Think about you’re a soldier within the Eighties U.S. Military, serving in West Germany throughout the Chilly Warfare. You might be stationed there due to longstanding agreements and alliances. America and the West German authorities have a monetary understanding that helps present in your stationing there. Are you a mercenary?
The scenario was very comparable for the German-speaking troopers who fought within the American Warfare of Independence, That they had a longstanding relationship with Nice Britain, stretching again many years. Because of the Hanoverian succession in 1714 (the British royal household was drawn from Hanover), their leaders had marriage ties with Nice Britain. Horace Walpole, a British politician from the 1730s, referred to the Hessians because the Triarii of Nice Britain: its dependable final line of protection. These troopers didn’t personally or corporately tackle contracts from the British; they have been members of their state militaries. Their governments have been paid a subsidy by the British with the intention to struggle of their wars.
Lots of them, like a number of the American troops they fought in opposition to, volunteered for financial causes. Others, like a number of the British troops they fought alongside and a number of the People throughout the battlefield, have been conscripted troopers. For that reason, the trendy German time period for these troops is Subsidientruppen, or subsidy troops. Thus, it is perhaps higher to talk of the German-speaking subsidy troops, versus calling them Hessians or mercenaries.
The mercenary relationship, if one existed in any respect, was between the British and the rulers of those states. Because of this, you typically hear that these troops have been offered to struggle in North America as a result of their princes have been grasping and needed to construct palaces and pay for his or her illegitimate kids. This, too, ignores the realities behind these insurance policies. The princes of the western Holy Roman Empire lived in an extremely harmful world throughout the 18th century. Their territories have been small, rural principalities, trapped between the army giants of France, Austria, and Prussia. Because of this, from the 1670s on, 100 years earlier than the American Revolution, these princes used subsidy contracts to construct themselves bigger armies. This preserved their independence. These subsidy contracts have been an ordinary characteristic of European politics, diplomacy, and battle decision. They allowed the princes to higher defend their small domains. Not one of the princes who fashioned subsidy contracts with Britain throughout the American Warfare of Independence have been doing one thing radically new or grasping. As a substitute, the cash from subsidy contracts was typically poured again into the military, with the intention to create a bigger army to guard these small nations from the French.
Some rulers even used the subsidy funds to advertise their economic system. The Hessian (Hessen-Kassel) Landgraf Friedrich II truly used the funds from the contract, partly, to advertise financial improvement and the textile trade in his territories. Now, not all of those princes have been the identical. A few of them had illegitimate kids. Some had opulent palaces. However portraying them as sex-crazed misers limits our understanding of the financial and safety requirements that really underpinned their subsidy insurance policies. For over 100 years, from the 1670s to the French Revolution, these insurance policies maintained the survival and independence of those states.
If these troops weren’t all Hessians or mercenaries, have been they significantly susceptible to brutality or drink? English officers within the Seven Years’ Warfare famous that their troops have been reprimanded for plundering greater than Hessian forces have been. In the course of the Warfare of Independence, the Hessians as soon as once more behaved higher than their British counterparts. Though there was a surge of concern about Hessian brutality early within the struggle, after the primary few years of the combating, American civilians believed that the subsidy troops handled them higher than British troopers did. The American soldier and future vp Aaron Burr wrote of Hessian atrocities: “Varied have been the stories in regards to the barbarities dedicated by the Hessians, most of them [are] unbelievable and false.” Hessian troops dedicated crimes in America, there isn’t a doubt. What is evident is that these crimes weren’t extreme for an 18th-century battle.
And what concerning the state of Hessian troopers, supposedly drunk from Christmas celebrations when Washington arrived? John Greenwood, a 16-year-old soldier in a Massachusetts regiment, recalled, “I’m sure not a drop of liquor was drunk the entire night time … and I’m keen to go on oath that I didn’t see a solitary drunken soldier belonging to the enemy.” As Greenwood’s regiment assaulted the Hessians at shut vary and he guarded Hessian prisoners of struggle after the battle, he was in a very good place to talk with authority. The parable of the Hessians stemmed from stereotypical American attitudes within the 1770s, which noticed German Christmas celebrations as a bit excessive. One American officer wrote: “They make quite a lot of Christmas in Germany, and little doubt the Hessians will drink quite a lot of beer and have a dance to-night.” Solely, as Greenwood attests, they didn’t.
Christmas: A Battle and a Compromise
Whatever the state of the Hessian garrison, Washington’s plan was daring. Using cutting-edge European tactical arts, he devised an assault the place a number of impartial columns would converge on Trenton, bringing round 6,000 males to assault the Hessian pressure of roughly 1,500. Within the occasion, as a result of climate and novelty of any such operation, solely round 2,400 People arrived. They started their assault, aided within the information that the moist climate would hamper Hessian defensive hearth. Each Hessian and American combatants reported bother with their firearms because of climate.
Certainly, the combating at Trenton was heavy. Regardless of American claims that they suffered no killed in motion at Trenton, a number of Hessian officers reported seeing American useless on the bottom after the battle. Had been they mistaken, or have been they mendacity to guard their fame? Had been the low American casualty figures a part of an data operation to spice up morale? It’s troublesome to say with certainty.
Of their narratives of the battle, Hessian officers criticized American techniques, significantly their tendency to fireplace too early. Hessian officer Andreas Wiederholdt recalled:
he had seen about 60 males of the rebels coming over to him, out of the wooden about 200 paces away on the street to John’s Ferry, they usually had 3 times fired on his picket. At first, he had not fired in return, as a result of he thought them too far off, as they fired for the third time he ordered his picket likewise to fireplace on the enemy.
In different parts of their accounts, Hessian officers reported executing advanced maneuvers equivalent to deploying skirmishers as a display to maintain the People at a distance, with the intention to give their males time to flee. This tactical complexity didn’t work: the skirmishers have been pushed in because of malfunctioning muskets. Even nearly 250 years later, the frustration of Hessian officers comes by in these paperwork. For all their skilled excellence, they couldn’t tactically struggle their manner out of a foul operational scenario. They surrendered in mass.
The American military was justly happy with the outcomes of Washington’s counter-offensive. That they had restored the military’s pleasure. That is generally used as shorthand for the story of American troopers patriotically reenlisting after the battle. On this telling, victory on the battlefield motivated troopers to remain. That is partially true. Washington and his subordinate commanders have been desperately negotiating with their males to remain on and struggle. However they nonetheless had numerous convincing to do, even after the victory at Trenton.
Washington, having supplied a tangible instance of success, additionally needed to meet the fabric wants of his troopers. He raised the morale of his troops with patriotic exhortations, however he additionally promised them a major reenlistment bonus. Washington was comparatively upbeat about this in his report to Congress, stating that he had “engaged a lot of the Japanese troops [New Englanders] to remain six weeks past their time period of Inlistment, upon giving a bounty of ten {dollars}. This I do know is a most extravagant value.” He was extra direct in a letter to John Hancock on Wednesday, Jan. 1:
After a lot persuasion and the exertions of their Officers, half or a better proportion of these from the Eastward, have consented to remain Six Weeks, on a bounty of Ten {Dollars}. I really feel the inconvenience of this advance, and I do know the implications which can end result from it; However what could possibly be performed? Pennsylvania had allowed the identical to her Militia, The Troops felt their significance, and would have their value. Certainly as their support is so important and to not be disbursed with, it’s to be puzzled, that they had not estimated it at a better price.
Right here, Washington fell again not on the patriotic emotions of the citizen-soldier, however on the promise to offer for materials wants. Any such negotiated authority was widespread in most European militaries. Washington agreed to satisfy the fabric wants of his males and earned their loyalty consequently. Going through the prospect of a decline of enlistments, he didn’t assert that materials wants have been a self-discipline downside.
Conclusion
Like many comforting Christmas tales, the Battle of Trenton has been wrapped in layers of fable. What classes does the actual Battle of Trenton provide army practitioners within the twenty first century? Lazy or essentialist desirous about “who we’re” or who the enemy is never results in correct outcomes. As a substitute, America’s enemies regularly make decisions and coverage selections that make sense when they’re understood in context. Removed from being brutal drunken mercenaries, the Hessian troopers George Washington confronted down in December 1776 have been skilled troopers with historical past and values of their very own. Washington’s daring and revolutionary operational planning put them right into a troublesome scenario, the place regardless of their tactical acumen, they have been captured. Washington seems on this story as a pacesetter with the imaginative and prescient and operational brilliance to offer his males an inspiring victory, but in addition the pliability to barter and meet their materials wants. All in all, it was a Christmas that America would always remember.
Alexander S. Burns is an assistant professor of historical past on the Franciscan College of Steubenville, learning George Washington’s military and its connections to European militaries. His edited quantity, The Altering Face of Outdated Regime Warfare: Essays in Honour of Christopher Duffy, was printed in 2022. You possibly can comply with him @KKriegeBlog.
Picture: Wikimedia Commons
